Module 13 Earthquake

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• 1. Module 13 Earthquake
• 2. EARTHQUAKE Photo credit: USGS
• 3. EARTHQUAKE Earthquake  A series of shock waves generated at a point ( the focus) within the Earth”s crust or mantle  The point on the surface of the Earth above the focus is called the epicenter  Three main types of wave motion are generated by an earthquake: P-Waves; S-Waves; dan LWaves
• 4. EARTHQUAKE P-Waves S-Waves • High-frequency • High-frequency • Short-wavelength • Short-wavelength • Longitudinal waves • Transverse waves • Can be reflected and • Can be reflected and refracted refracted • Travel through the • Travel through the solid and the liquid solid part of the part of the Earth Earth at varying velocities. • Propagated in all directions from the focus L-Waves • Low-frequency • Long-wavelength • Transverse vibrations • Confined to the outer skin of the crust • Responsible for most of the destructive force of earthquake
• 5. EARTHQUAKE Seismic Wave Types  Body Waves  Primary or Compressional  Secondary or Shear  Surface Waves  Rayleigh (large vertical displacements)  Love (shear)
• 6. EARTHQUAKE Body Waves Seismic Wave Types Secondary (S) Wave Surface Waves Primary (P) Wave Love Wave Rayleigh Wave
• 7. EARTHQUAKE Elastic Rebound Theory 3 m offset 1906 San Francisco Earthquake
• 8. EARTHQUAKE Elastic Rebound Theory Wher e does t he of f set occur ? r aw t he r elat ive movement Offset Lettuce Rows - El Centro, CA
• 9. EARTHQUAKE Equations for velocities Vp = k + 4/3µ ρ 1/2 ρ density µ ρ shear modulus (rigidity) k Vs = µ bulk modulus (rigidity) 1/2 because shear modulus (rigidity) for fluid is zero, S waves cannot propagate through a fluid consequence of equations is that P waves are 1.7x faster than S can infer physical properties from P and S waves
• 10. Effects of the Earthquake Earthquakes don’t kill people - buildings do! Pancaked Building - 1985 Mexico City
• 11. Effects of the Earthquake Soil Liquefaction - 1964 Niigata, Japan
• 12. Effects of the Earthquake Surface Displacement - 1964 Alaska
• 13. Effects of the Earthquake Ground Rupture, 1906 Olema, CA
• 14. Effects of the Earthquake Fence Compression - Gallatin County, MT
• 15. Effects of the Earthquake Buckled Concrete - 1971 San Fernando, CA
• 16. Effects of the Earthquake Tsunami Devastation - 1964 Alaska Earthquake
• 17. Effects of the Earthquake Tsunami Generation
• 18. Effects of the Earthquake Tsunami Wave Propagation Times
• 19. Locating the Earthquake Vertical Component Seismometer
• 20. Locating the Earthquake Horizontal Component Seismometer
• 21. Locating the Earthquake First Arrivals – Seismographic Record
• 22. Locating the Earthquake Distance – Time Ralations
• 23. Locating the Earthquake P vs S Wave Travel Time Curves
• 24. Locating the Earthquake Earthquake Location by Range
• 25. Measuring the Earthquake • Three distinct methods to measure earthquakes. Two based on energy and one based on intensity. – Richter Magnitude Scale: originally developed for southern California. Log scale, which has no upper bound. Small earthquakes may yield negative values. Tends to be inaccurate at >7 magnitudes. – Moment Magnitude Scale: measurement of the amount of work done during the earthquake. Based on rock strength, area of rupture, and displacement during event. – Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale: based on the damage associated with a particular event at a particular location. Ranges from I (less damage) to XII (more damage).
• 26. Measuring the Earthquake Magnitude-Description-Intensity-Frequency Relations
• 27. Measuring the Earthquake Modified Mercalli Intensity Index (1931) 1886 Charleston, SC earthquake
• 28. Measuring the Earthquake Historical Earthquake Magnitudes
• 29. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics • Earthquakes at Plate Boundaries • Subduction Angle
• 30. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics Earthquake Distribution
• 31. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics Relative plate motion and boundaries
• 32. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics different types of structures are associated with each boundary type: divergent/rifting: extensional (normal faulting) convergent/collisional: compressional (thrust faulting) transform/transcurrent: shear-dominated (strike-slip faulting)
• 33. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics Divergent Boundary and Earthquakes
• 34. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics Divergent Boundary and Earthquakes Earthquakes along mid-ocean ridge are shallower than those along subduction zone from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html
• 35. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics Transform Boundary and Earthquakes
• 36. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics Transform Boundary and Earthquakes The western US is somewhat anomalous Note: absence of deep earthquakes from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html
• 37. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics Convergent Boundary and Earthquakes
• 38. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics Shallow vs. Deep Subduction Earthquakes Continent-continent collision zones have broad areas of of relatively shallow seismicity Ocean-continent convergent margins have earthquakes foci that extend to great depths. Mechanism tend to change from extension to compression downdip.
• 39. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics deep intermediate shallow • Epicenters: location of earthquake rupture projected to surface; • Dip of slab leads to observed seismicity patterns: deeper farther from trench • Location of downgoing slab as it dives into mantle is defined by seismicity. • Earthquakes occur along an inclined belt: the Wadati-Benioff zone reaches maximum depth of ~670 km from: http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~crlb/COURSES/270
• 40. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics Seismicity of subduction zones Seismicity Fiji Islands Region: 1977 - 1997 Seismicity of Japan and Kuril Island: 1975 - 1995 Seismicity of Peru-Bolivia Border Region: 1977 - 1997 all from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html
• 41. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics Tomography (3D seismic) blue is fast… interpreted as slab note continuity of blue slab to depths on order of 670 km slab is cold and thus can have earthquakes at greater depths from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html
• 42. Earthquake and Plate Tectonics Seismicity along subduction zones: earthquakes are shallow, intermediate, and deep but have systematic location related to subducting slab shallow adjacent to trench and deep farthest away from: http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~crlb/COURSES/270
• 43. Tsunami Hazard Area Map of Indonesia
• 44. Earthquake Hazard Area Map of Indonesia
• 45. Map of Distribution of Active Faults and Destroying Earthquake Epicenters of Indonesia